United States

Captured in Chinatown (1935) Production Photograph

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Two figures seen here in the shadows emerged in the 1920s and 30s as part of the cinematic shorthand for American Chinatowns. One, the murderous hatchet man, can be seen in the back alley, while other is seen peering out the curio shop window: an icon of a buddha.

This film, Captured in Chinatown, is a melodrama from 1935 that portrays a Romeo and Juliet style love story and a growing war between two Chinatown tongs. As Philippa Gates suggests, it also shows the promise of American assimilation provided outdated Chinese ways are abandoned.

While the American-born Chinese lovers embrace American life, their immigrant parents remain stuck in petty and violent family feuds. Unlike many major Hollywood productions, this B film cast Asian American actors in all of the leading Chinese roles.

One of the main sets includes the interior of Lieu Ling Importers which displays a Buddhist statue in the window, presumably for sale. There is also a different Buddhist shrine inside the shop where the female Chinese lead prays to Amitābha Buddha, invoking him with, “Amituofo.”

The film ends with the two lovers reunited, thanking the revered “Most High One” for ending the feud. For more on the portrayal of Chinatown in films of this era, see Philippa Gates, Criminalization/Assimilation: Chinese/Americans and Chinatowns in Classical Hollywood Film (2019).

The Buddhas in the West Material Archive is a digital scholarship project that catalogues artifacts depicting Buddhist material culture for Western audiences. It’s comprised of prints, photos, and an assortment of ephemera and other objects. For a brief introduction to this archive, visit the main Buddhas in the West project page.

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Postcard of Guanyin at Chicago’s Ling Long Chinese Museum

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The Ling Long Chinese Museum in Chicago opened prior to the 1933 World’s Fair hoping to draw visitors and help erase the popular view that US Chinatowns were “immoral and dangerous.” The museum housed a large altar in the rear of the main arcade to enshrine an icon of Guanyin.

The was the first American museum owned and operated by Chinese immigrants. One of the main attractions were a series of twenty-four dioramas flanking the “shrine hall” that displayed historical stories and legends from China’s past.

Chicago’s Curt Teich & Co. spearheaded new technology to print postcards in hyperreal colors in 1931, starting the “linen card” era that ran through World War II. Based on production numbers, we know this card was first published for the Ling Long Museum in 1933, the year it first opened.

The Guanyin altar was set-up during the period of Chinese Exclusion when many Chinatown temples across the US were closing. Even the shrine seen here displays altar arrangements not commonly seen, such as including lion statuettes.

The museum was open through the 1970s before changing over to a Chinese restaurant. Many items were moved to the Chinese-American Museum of Chicago, but a fire in 2008 destroyed much of the collection, including most of the original dioramas; the Guanyin image is presumed lost.

The Buddhas in the West Material Archive is a digital scholarship project that catalogues artifacts depicting Buddhist material culture for Western audiences. It’s comprised of prints, photos, and an assortment of ephemera and other objects. For a brief introduction to this archive, visit the main Buddhas in the West project page.

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Chinatown’s Tin How Temple / Grass Valley Temple Real Photo Postcard

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After the 1906 earthquake, San Francisco’s Tin How Temple was one of a fraction of Chinese religious institutions to rebuild, reopening in 1911 on the footprint of the original building. Despite the caption, this photo does not show the pre-1906 altar, nor is it a San Francisco temple.

Tin How, the Empress of Heaven, also known as Mazu, was popular along China’s southern coast and revered for her protective powers, especially at sea. Many early Chinese immigrants erected temples dedicated to her and other deities across North America.

The photo shows the altar of the old Chinese temple in Grass Valley, identifiable by the large carved inscription board reading “Waves of favor cross over the seas.” It’s likely the postcard publisher saw a more lucrative opportunity in selling a visual “relic” of the lost Tin How Temple shrine.

Moreover, the Grass Valley temple was dedicated to Houwang, not Mazu, yet both locations were alternatively called the Temple of Many Saints, seen carved on the altar façade from 1875. The Grass Valley temple fell into disrepair by 1933 and was closed soon thereafter.

The altar was preserved and is now displayed at the Nevada Firehouse No.1 Museum. For more history on the Grass Valley temple, see Chuimei Ho and Bennet Bronson’s Chinese Traditional Religion and Temple in NorthAmerica, 1849–1902 (2022).

The Buddhas in the West Material Archive is a digital scholarship project that catalogues artifacts depicting Buddhist material culture for Western audiences. It’s comprised of prints, photos, and an assortment of ephemera and other objects. For a brief introduction to this archive, visit the main Buddhas in the West project page.

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Buddhist Temple of Los Angeles Postcard

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Inspired by the success in San Jose and Sacramento, Izumida Junjō 泉田準城 (1866–1951) arrived in Los Angeles in 1904 and opened the city’s first Buddhist temple for Japanese immigrants. After raising funds and purchasing land, a newer and larger temple was opened in 1911 on Savannah Street.

Associated with Nishi Hongan-ji, a Jōdo Shinshū Buddhist organization headquartered in Kyoto, Izumida organized the Rafu Bukkyō-kai 羅府仏教会, the Buddhist Mission of Los Angeles. It was meant to meet Japanese immigrants’ needs for funerals, memorial services, and spiritual guidance.

Possibly in celebration and promotion of the new temple, the Mission issued picture postcards highlighting both the interior and exterior of the building. The colorful illustrated elements on the front reveal an Arts and Crafts influence popular in the early 20th century.

The building was meant to reflect both American residential architecture and Japanese temple architecture. The latter can be seen in the curved eaves on the roof and the temple-style gate over the front porch.

The interior also shows a hybrid style, with church-like pews set in front of a traditional Japanese Buddhist altar.

As a Jōdo Shinshū temple, the shrine is dedicated to Amida Buddha, here with a scroll bearing his name. For more on the history of this LA temple, see Michihiro Ama, Immigrants to the Pure Land: The Modernization, Acculturation, and Globalization of Shin Buddhism (2011).

The Buddhas in the West Material Archive is a digital scholarship project that catalogues artifacts depicting Buddhist material culture for Western audiences. It’s comprised of prints, photos, and an assortment of ephemera and other objects. For a brief introduction to this archive, visit the main Buddhas in the West project page.

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Harper’s 1871 “Joss House” Print

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In 1871, Harper’s Weekly published a wood engraving depicting the interior of a San Francisco Chinese temple, a rare print subject before the 1906 earthquake. Clues suggest it shows the main hall of Eastern Glory Temple located off Jackson St. on St. Louis Alley.

Eastern Glory Temple was privately owned by physician Li Po Tai (1817–1893), an immigrant from Guangdong who opened a general store and apothecary across from Portsmouth Square. His temple was featured in California newspapers in February 1871, just before Harper’s illustration that March.

Despite being called a “Buddhist temple” in some popular accounts, there is no Buddhist icon displayed in the main shrine hall. The central icon is the Northern Emperor, a celestial deity popular among early Chinese immigrants from southern China.

Contemporary newspaper reports claim the icon to the far left was the “controller of fortunes” named “Choy Pah.”

The icon to the far right was a famous military general named “Tun Goa.” The next room over holds a shrine to Guanyin (not illustrated), the sole Buddhist figure, which newspapers describe as a “Cinderella” who is “treated cruelly by haughty women [and performs] act of charity.”

In addition to the Northern Emperor, the central altar displays the famous general Guandi and righteous official Hongsheng. To read more about Li Po Tai, see Tamara Venit Shelton’s Herbs and Roots: A History of Chinese Doctors in the American Medical Marketplace (2019).

The Buddhas in the West Material Archive is a digital scholarship project that catalogues artifacts depicting Buddhist material culture for Western audiences. It’s comprised of prints, photos, and an assortment of ephemera and other objects. For a brief introduction to this archive, visit the main Buddhas in the West project page.

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Guanyin Icon in The Mask of Fu Manchu (1932)

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Fu Manchu’s opulent Gobi Desert lair seen in The Mask of Fu Manchu (1932) was assembled by MGM art director Cedric Gibbons. While the Art Deco inspired torture chambers remain horror classics, Gibbons’ strategic use of Buddhist statuary also hint to the audience impending danger.

Boris Karloff portrayed the villainous doctor Fu Manchu, here sitting on a throne introducing his daughter Fah Lo See (Myrna Loy). This scene unfolds under the eyes of a shadowy Buddhist figure perched atop the throne; close inspection reveals this to be in the style of a Guanyin statue.

Many props Gibbons used were made at the studio, including some of the Buddhist statues seen on screen. The idiosyncratic elements, including the multi-rayed halo, suggested this statue was pieced together by set designers; it was seen previously in Daughter of the Dragon (1931).

Curiously, the ornate backrest of the throne makes it appear as if Fu Manchu himself is a statue encircled by a halo. Like a menacing statue come to life, the audience can surmise the visitor will suffer at the hands of the villain.

Fu Manchu played on the racist fears of the Yellow Peril; in film, these fears could also be signified by Buddhist imagery. For further discussion of the dueling positive and negative views of China in American cinema, see Naomi Greene’s From Fu Manchu to Kung Fu Panda (2014).

The Buddhas in the West Material Archive is a digital scholarship project that catalogues artifacts depicting Buddhist material culture for Western audiences. It’s comprised of prints, photos, and an assortment of ephemera and other objects. For a brief introduction to this archive, visit the main Buddhas in the West project page.

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World Wide Magazine 1938 Laughing Buddha Cover

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Founded in 1898, the Wide World Magazine was “devoted to romance of travel, adventure, and exploration.” Stories were promoted as “true in every detail” and submissions required a written statement by the author to this effect (they were, of course, not true).

Over 150 pulp magazine titles were sold in the 1930s, thus striking cover art was critical for newsstand sales. The cover here depicts a brightly colored green-skinned Laughing Buddha statue

The cover story of June 1938 issue contained a report provided by one “Dennis Blake of Rangoon, Burma,” concerning the curious effects of Buddhist images.

In this report, two small Chinese Laughing Buddha statues were believed to either cause blessings or misfortune to its owners. The artwork by Kenneth Inns shows a statue about to be broken against the wall.

The stories are resolved when we are told that gifted Buddhist statues bring luck, while purchased Buddhist statues bring misfortune!

The Buddhas in the West Material Archive is a digital scholarship project that catalogues artifacts depicting Buddhist material culture for Western audiences. It’s comprised of prints, photos, and an assortment of ephemera and other objects. For a brief introduction to this archive, visit the main Buddhas in the West project page.

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1933 Golden Pavilion Laughing Buddha Playing Card

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The 1933 Chicago World’s Fair held a true wonder: A Chinese replica of an 18th century Tibetan Buddhist shrine hall, the Golden Temple of Jehol. While the hall included a main shrine to Guanyin, the Laughing Buddha at the front entrance was often used in advertising.

Due to growing conflict in East Asia, the Chinese government withdrew from the 1933 World’s Fair. Subsequently, organizers arranged for display of the recently acquired temple replica of Vincent Bendix, a well-known Chicago industrialist.

Bendix had funded the expedition of Sved Hedin a few years earlier to procure a replica of a Chinese Buddhist temple. The original interest was to display two replica temples with Tibetan religious objects, one in Chicago and one in Stockholm.

Only one replica was made, but Hedin acquired many ritual implements, including thankas and icons, to outfit the building. Named the Bendix Golden Temple (or Pavilion), it was a Chinese-made replica of the Wanfaguiyi Hall in present-day Chengde (Jehol).

The temple was rebuilt for the 1939 World’s Fair in New York. As of 2018 the remains of the temple hall are in Stockholm, but the ritual items and furnishing have all been lost.

The Buddhas in the West Material Archive is a digital scholarship project that catalogues artifacts depicting Buddhist material culture for Western audiences. It’s comprised of prints, photos, and an assortment of ephemera and other objects. For a brief introduction to this archive, visit the main Buddhas in the West project page.

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Joseph Keppler’s Crafty Priests Puck Magazine Cover

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In the 1880s Puck was America’s premier satire magazine, but the publication stood out for another reason: it was among the first periodicals to use chromolithographic printing. Puck was founded by Joseph Keppler who was also a main artist – his work from 1888 is seen here.

The political commentary draws upon the old trope of “crafty priests” stealing from pious believers.

The visual trope, however, uses more recently circulating popular imagery of a cross-legged multi-arm idol. The traditional Biblical imagery of the golden calf has replaced by a stereotyped golden Asian icon. Moreover, the facial features are exaggerated to look more grotesque.

A large collection of Puck political cartoons has been digitized by the Library of Congress, viewable here: https://tinyurl.com/ycde4xtc.

The Buddhas in the West Material Archive is a digital scholarship project that catalogues artifacts depicting Buddhist material culture for Western audiences. It’s comprised of prints, photos, and an assortment of ephemera and other objects. For a brief introduction to this archive, visit the main Buddhas in the West project page.

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Fritz Müller’s Tin How Temple Postcard

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Chinatown’s Iconic Joss House: We lack a rich photographic history of the religious life of San Francisco’s Chinatown before the 1906 earthquake. Of the photos we have, this Chinese temple on Waverly Place is arguably the most iconic – the Tin How Temple.

The goddess Tin How, otherwise known as Mazu, is known for her devoted protection of sailors and close association with early southern Chinese immigrants who came to the US. A close inspection of the second floor reveals her name, Tin How 天后, on plaques beside the doorway.

For a time, different temple shrines occupied the second and third floors of the adjacent building. One shrine was dedicated to the Emperor of the North, Beidi 北帝, who was an old stellar deity popular in the Pearl Delta Region.

Due to the design on the back we know this post card was issued before 1907. The front informs the San Francisco publisher Fritz Müller had the cards printed in Germany, a common occurrence at the time.

For an insightful commentary on how to conceptualize traditional Chinese religion through Mazu worship, see Natasha’s Heller’s “Using Mazu to Teach Key Elements of Chinese Religions” available here: https://tinyurl.com/48smwjx2.

The Buddhas in the West Material Archive is a digital scholarship project that catalogues artifacts depicting Buddhist material culture for Western audiences. It’s comprised of prints, photos, and an assortment of ephemera and other objects. For a brief introduction to this archive, visit the main Buddhas in the West project page.

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