Visual Literacy of Buddhism in America

What do you envision the Buddha to have looked like?

Part of my research is guided by this deceptively complex question. As many Americans were first introduced to Buddhism in the latter half of the nineteenth century, I’m interested in how they also developed a “visual literacy” of Buddhist images. In other words, how did they learn about the visual identity of the Buddha and other Buddhist figures?

This page is a repository where I keep some of my research notes on popular American material culture and print ephemera containing Buddhist figures. All items, except otherwise noted, are part of my personal archive, and as such, they represent my uneven collecting habits and particular research interests. I will update this page as my time and motivation allow. Scroll down to the Visual Literacy of Buddhism Vignettes section to read short essays about each artifact. _/|\_

August 2024

Update! I have begun publishing a larger part of my collection under the digital scholarship project called Buddhas in the West Material Archive. I am primarily publishing this material as posts on Bluesky [@buddhasinthewest.bsky.social], Instagram [@buddhas.in.the.west], and formerly X (Twitter) [@Buddhas_West].

December 2018

Origins of Visual Literacy Project: My scholarship has regularly returned to questions regarding the cross-cultural transmission of religion. Trained as a medieval Sinologist (someone who studies China) with a focus on Buddhism, I was interested in how early medieval Chinese people conceived the foreign Indian tradition of Buddhism when it first entered their sphere of knowledge. Early depictions of Buddhist images in China are fascinating hybrids of Chinese and non-Chinese ideas. In many ways these function as visual metaphors for a similar process of intercultural assimilation we find in early Chinese Buddhist doctrine. Yet, as someone who is acutely aware of the degradation of historical documents, I’ve imagined how all of the more ephemeral depictions of early Chinese Buddhist imagery have not withstood the test of time.

Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz
American tourists posing for a photograph in front of the Kamakura Daibutsu. [c. 1920s]

I realized this hybridization process was ongoing currently in the United States and has been for many decades.  While classical institutions of learning, such as university libraries and museums, would be repositories of the most valuable historical items, I became interested in what might be called the more vernacular expressions of contemporary, “Western” Buddhist imagery. Thus, I started to collect items as a pseudo-intellectual hobby. In a sense, I was doing what I wish someone did in China millennia ago when Buddhism was first introduced. I continue to believe there is value in archiving and analyzing these early, and sometimes odd, specimens of vernacular Buddhist imagery in America.

Below I share a handful of short essays, which I call “vignettes,” about several items I thought had good stories to tell.

June 2018-Ongoing

Visual Literacy of Buddhism Vignettes

The short essays published thus far are listed below. They are organized by material genre. For a short history and explanation of each item, click on the hyperlinked image or title. This will redirect you to a separate post with further analysis and historical context of the artifact.

Table of Contents

  1. Albumen Photographic Prints
  2. Silver Gelatin Photographic Prints
  3. Postcards
  4. Stereoviews
  5. Magic Lantern Slides
  6. Travel Ephemera
  7. Music Memorabilia

Albumen Photographic Prints

Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Renjō’s Daibutsu: A Pioneer of the Path
  • Title/Caption: NA (Diabutz [sic] on reverse)
  • Year: 1869-1871 (dated Oct. 7, 1871 on reverse)
  • Photographer: Shimooka Renjō 下岡蓮杖 (1823-1914)
  • Medium: albumen silver print, mounted on card
  • Dimensions: 3 in X 2 in (cartes de visite)
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Farsari’s Dai Butsu
  • Title/Caption: NA
  • Year: c. 1887
  • Photographer: Adolfo Farsari (1841-1898)
  • Medium: albumen silver print, hand-tinted
  • Dimensions: 10.25 in X 8.25 in

Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Farsari’s Dai Butsu
  • Title/Caption: L20 DAI BUTSU (B)
  • Year: c. 1887
  • Photographer: Adolfo Farsari (1841-1898)
  • Medium: albumen silver print, hand-tinted
  • Dimensions: 10.25 in X 8.25 in
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Farsari’s Dai Butsu
  • Title/Caption: Japan, A. Farsari & Co., Yokohama [photographic frontispiece]
  • Year: c. 1887
  • Photographer: Adolfo Farsari (1841-1898)
  • Medium: albumen silver print, sepia-tinted
  • Dimensions: 10.25 in X 8.25 in

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Silver Gelatin Photographic Prints

Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

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Postcards

Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Illustrated State-Issued Postal Card of the Kamakura Daibutsu, c. 1897 [Updated June 2024]
  • Title/Caption: DAIBUTSU, KAMAKURA
  • Year: 1897 (postally used)
  • Publisher: Printing Bureau, Ministry of Finance 大蔵省印刷局
  • Medium: woodblock print on paper
  • Dimensions: 5.5 in X 3.5 in
  • Reverse Imprint: 大日本郵便, JAPANESE POST, 郵便はがき
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Government-Issued Halftone Postal Card of the Daibutsu
  • Title/Caption: DAIBUTSU, KAMAKURA 鎌倉大仏
  • Year: 1897 (postally used)
  • Publisher: Printing Bureau, Ministry of Finance 大蔵省印刷局
  • Medium: halftone print on paper
  • Dimensions: 5.5 in X 3.5 in
  • Reverse Imprint: 大日本郵便, JAPANESE POST, 郵便はがき+
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Kimbei’s Undivided Back Postcard
  • Title/Caption: NA
  • Year: 1900-1907 (postally unused)
  • Photographer: Kusakabe Kimbei 日下部金兵衛 (1841-1934)
  • Medium: collotype print on cardstock, hand-tinted
  • Dimensions: 5.5 in X 3.5 in
  • Reverse Imprint: Union Postale Universelle. CARTE POSTALE, 萬國郵便聯合端書
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Kōzaburō’s Undivided Back Postcard
  • Title/Caption: NA
  • Year: 1900-1907 (postally unused)
  • Photographer: Tamamura Kōzaburō 玉村康三郎 (1856-1923?)[?]
  • Medium: collotype print on cardstock, hand-tinted
  • Dimensions: 5.5 in X 3.5 in
  • Reverse Imprint: Union Postale Universelle. CARTE POSTALE, 萬國郵便聯合端書
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Esaki’s Pilgrims at the Daibutsu
  • Title/Caption: DAIBUTSU AT KAMAKURA
  • Year: 1900-1907 (postally unused)
  • Photographer: Esaki Reiji 江崎礼二 (1845-1910)[?]
  • Medium: collotype print on cardstock, hand-tinted
  • Dimensions: 5.5 in X 3.5 in
  • Reverse Imprint: Union Postale Universelle. CARTE POSTALE, 萬國郵便聯合端書
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Esaki’s Pilgrims at the Daibutsu
  • Title/Caption: 451 [or 461] DAIBUTSU AT KAMAKURA
  • Year: 1900-1907 (postally unused)
  • Photographer: Esaki Reiji 江崎礼二 (1845-1910)[?]
  • Medium: collotype print on cardstock, hand-tinted
  • Dimensions: 5.5 in X 3.5 in
  • Reverse Imprint: Union Postale Universelle. CARTE POSTALE, 萬國郵便聯合端書
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Ueda’s Hand-Colored Cerulean Letterpress Postcards
  • Title/Caption: Daibutsu, Kamakura. 佛大倉鎌
  • Year: c. 1907 [postally used 1910]
  • Publisher: Ueda Photographic Prints Corp. 上田写真版合資会社
  • Medium: collotype print on cardstock, hand-tinted
  • Dimensions: 5.5 in X 3.5 in
  • Reverse Imprint: Postkarte [Type 1], 郵便はかき
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Ueda’s Hand-Colored Cerulean Letterpress Postcards
  • Title/Caption: Daibutsu, Kamakura. 佛大倉鎌
  • Year: c. 1907 [postally unused]
  • Publisher: Ueda Photographic Prints Corp. 上田写真版合資会社
  • Medium: collotype print on cardstock, hand-tinted
  • Dimensions: 5.5 in X 3.5 in
  • Reverse Imprint: Postkarte [Type 1], 郵便はかき
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Ueda’s Daibutsu and Dog Postcard
  • Title/Caption: Daibutsu, Kamakura. 佛大倉鎌
  • Year: c. 1907 [postally unused]
  • Publisher: Ueda Photographic Prints Corp. 上田写真版合資会社
  • Medium: collotype print on cardstock, hand-tinted
  • Dimensions: 5.5 in X 3.5 in
  • Reverse Imprint: Postkarte [Type 1], 郵便はかき
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Ueda’s Unfussy Daibutsu Postcard
  • Title/Caption: Daibutsu, Kamakura. 佛大倉鎌
  • Year: c. 1907 [postally unused]
  • Publisher: Ueda Photographic Prints Corp. 上田写真版合資会社
  • Medium: collotype print on cardstock, hand-tinted
  • Dimensions: 5.5 in X 3.5 in
  • Reverse Imprint: Carte Postale [Type 2], 郵便はかき
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Tonboya’s Onlooker of the Daibutsu
  • Title/Caption: Daibutsu at Kamakura. 佛大倉鎌
  • Year: c. 1909
  • Publisher: Tonboya トンボヤ
  • Medium: collotype print on cardstock, hand-tinted
  • Dimensions: 5 in X 3.5 in
  • Reverse Imprint: Carte Postale Post Card [+],  郵便ハガ[キ]
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Tonboya’s Failed Voyeurism of the Daibutsu
  • Title/Caption: Daibutsu at Kamakura. 佛大倉鎌
  • Year: 1907-1918
  • Publisher: Tonboya トンボヤ
  • Medium: collotype print on cardstock, hand-tinted
  • Dimensions: 5 in X 3.5 in
  • Reverse Imprint: Union Postale Universelle.[+], 郵便はかき
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Panoramic Postcard of the Kamakura Kaihin Hotel
  • Title/Caption: Kamakura Kaihin Hotel Kamakura, Japan.
  • Year: 1903-1907 [postally unused]
  • Publisher: unknown
  • Medium: collotype print on cardstock
  • Dimensions: 5.5 in X 3.5 in
  • Reverse Imprint: Post Card, 郵便はかき
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Eight Postcards Views of Kamakura
  • Title/Caption: Kamakura 8 View Postcard Coloured by Hand.
  • Year: mid-to-late 1920s
  • Publisher: Unknown
  • Medium: collotype print on paper and cardstock, hand-tinted
  • Dimensions: approx. 5.5 in X 3.5 in
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Eight Postcards Views of Kamakura
  • Title/Caption: Kamakura 8 View Assorted Coloured by Hand.
  • Year: mid 1930s
  • Publisher: Unknown
  • Medium: collotype print on paper and cardstock, hand-tinted
  • Dimensions: approx. 5.5 in X 3.5 in

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Stereoviews

Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Metcalf & Bennet’s “A Summer In Japan” Stereoview
  • Title/Caption: Bronze Image of Buddha at Kammakura [sic]
  • Year: 1877
  • Photographer: William Henry Metcalf (1821-1892)
  • Publisher: Henry Hamilton Bennett (1843–1908), “A Summer in Japan” (#346)
  • Medium: albumen print, mounted on yellow-orange card
  • Dimensions: 7 in x 3.5 in
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Strohmeyer’s “Faithful at the Shrine of the Daibutsu” Stereoview
  • Title/Caption: The Faithful at the Shrine of Dai Butsu, Japan’s Greatest Idol, Kamakura, Japan
  • Year: 1896
  • Photographer: Henry A. Strohmeyer (1858-1943)
  • Publisher: Strohmeyer & Wyman, distributed by Underwood & Underwood (out of a set of 72 views)
  • Medium: sliver gelatin print; mounted on curved buff/tan-colored card
  • Dimensions: 7 in X 3.5 in
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Keystone’s “Colossal Bronze Statue of Buddha” Stereoview
  • Title/Caption: “Daibutsu” – The Colossal Bronze Statue of Buddha, Kamakura Japan
  • Year: c. 1906
  • Photographer: unknown
  • Publisher: Keystone View Company, Benneville Lloyd Singley (1864-1938)(#61 out of 72/100?)
  • Medium: sliver gelatin print; mounted on curved slate-colored card
  • Dimensions: 7 in X 3.5 in
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Ponting & Graves’ “Largest Idol in the East” Stereoview
  • Title/Caption: Worshipping at the Shrine of the Great Daibutsu, the Largest Idol in the East. Kamakura, Japan
  • Year: 1902
  • Photography:  Herbert George Ponting (1870-1935)
  • Publisher: Universal Photo Art Company, Carlton Harlow Graves (d. 1943?)(#70 out of 200)
  • Medium: sliver gelatin print; mounted on curved slate-colored card
  • Dimensions: 7 in X 3.5 in
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Ponting and the Underwoods’ “Majestic Calm” of the Kamakura Daibutsu Stereoview
  • Title/Caption: Majestic Calm of the Great Bronze Buddha, Revered for Six Centuries, (Facing S.W.) Kamakura, Japan
  • Year: 1904
  • Photographer: Herbert George Ponting (1870-1935)
  • Publisher: Underwood & Underwood; part of  “Tour of Japan” (#11 out of 100)
  • Medium: sliver gelatin print; mounted on curved slate-colored card
  • Dimensions: 7 in x 3.5 in
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Ponting and White’s “Sacred Daibitsu” Stereoview
  • Title/Caption: The Sacred Daibutsu, Colossal Bronze Image of Buddha, Kamakura, Japan
  • Year: 1905
  • Photography:  Herbert George Ponting (1870-1935)
  • Publisher: The “Perfec” Stereograph; Hawley C. White (B. 1847?) (#23 out of 100)
  • Medium: sliver gelatin print; mounted on olive-colored card
  • Dimensions: 7 in X 3.5 in
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Enami’s Dazzling Bronze Buddha Stereoview
  • Title/Caption: The Large Bronze Buddha, Kamakura, Japan
  • Year: 1907
  • Photographer: Enami Nobukuni 江南信國 (1859-1929)
  • Publisher: Griffith & Griffith
  • Medium: sliver gelatin print; mounted on curved slate-colored card
  • Dimensions: 7 in X 3.5 in
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Keystone’s Tour of the World Stereoview
  • Title/Caption: The Colossal Daibutsu in Cherry-Blossom Time – the Great Buddha of Kamakura, Japan
  • Year: 1935-6
  • Photographer: unknown
  • Publisher: Keystone View Company (#925 out of 1200 card “Tour of the World” set)
  • Medium: sliver gelatin print; mounted on curved card
  • Dimensions: 7 in X 3.5 in
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Underwood and Underwood’s Tourist Excursion Stereoview
  • Title/Caption: The Kakamura Wonder [handwritten on reverse]
  • Year: c. 1910-1914
  • Photographer: unknown
  • Publisher: Underwood & Underwood
  • Medium: sliver gelatin print; mounted on curved slate-colored card
  • Dimensions: 7 in X 3.5 in
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Graves’ “Stereoscopic Gem” Stereoview
  • Title/Caption: Colossal Statue of Buddha Kamakura Japan [on negative]
  • Year: c. 1902-5
  • Photographer: Herbert George Ponting (1870-1935)
  • Publisher: Stereoscopic Gems of American and Foreign Scenery, Carlton Harlow Graves (d. 1943?)
  • Medium: sliver gelatin print; mounted on curved slate-colored card
  • Dimensions: 7 in X 3.5 in
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

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Magic Lantern Slides

Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Keystone’s “Colossal Bronze Statue of Buddha” Stereoview
  • Title/Caption: “Daibutsu” – The Colossal Bronze Statue of Budda [sic], Kamakura Japan.
  • Year: c. 1906
  • Photographer: unknown
  • Publisher: Keystone View Company, Benneville Lloyd Singley (1864-1938)(#14009)
  • Medium: glass and photographic emulsion, paper

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Travel Ephemera

Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: Panoramic Postcard of the Kamakura Kaihin Hotel
  • Title/Caption: Kamakura Kaihin Hotel Kamakura // Telephone No. 4 & 331, Kamakura // Japan
  • Year: 1930s
  • Printer: unknown
  • Medium: halftone print and ink on paper
  • Dimensions: 5 in X 3.in

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Music Memorabilia

Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: The “Buddha” Foxtrot by Pollack and Rose
  • Title: Buddha Fox Trot
  • Date: 1919 (date on reverse)
  • Cover Artist: André De Takacs (1880-1919)
  • Composer: Lew Pollack (1895-1946)
  • Lyricist: Ed Rose (1875-1935)
  • Publisher: McCarthy & Fisher Inc. (NY)
Visual Literacy of Buddhism ⓒ P.Romaskiewicz

  • Read More: The “Buddha” Foxtrot by Pollack and Rose
  • Title: Buddha [Operatic Edition]
  • Date: 1920 (date on reverse)
  • Artist: Unknown
  • Lyricist: Lew Pollack (1895-1946)
  • Songwriter: Ed Rose (1875-1935)
  • Publisher: McCarthy & Fisher Inc. (NY)

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I’ve also decided to publish my working notes on a variety of topics. This includes dating old Kamakura Daibutsu photographs and identifying Japanese and Burmese postcard publishers. Adjacent topics include creating a map of the old Chinese temples located in San Francisco’s Chinatown and exploring Buddhist material culture at the 1893 Chicago World’s Fair. These posts can be accessed here.